The batteries that back up solar and wind farms face a problem passenger electric vehicles rarely do: they live outdoors, in places where nights can freeze and days can scorch. A study published January 9 in The Innovation Energy maps which thermal management strategy keeps a grid-scale battery module safe across that entire range — from -20°C preheating to full thermal runaway. Researchers at Xi'an Jiaotong University built a numerical framework coupling electrochemical, aging, thermal-runaway and fluid dynamics models, and applied it to a 46.592 kWh storage module of fifty-two 280 Ah lithium iron phosphate cells connected in series. They then compared nine heating, cooling and protection configurations across three scenarios: preheating from -20°C to 25°C, continuous cooling during charge-discharge cycles, and containment after one cell goes into runaway. Immersion heating — bathing cells directly in warm fluid — delivered the fastest warm-up, 2.05 to 3.23 K per minute across tested flow rates. Film heating needed 500 to 2000 W per square meter to reach 0.47 to 2.19 K per minute, and film and liquid-plate heating both left cells less thermally uniform, a consequence of the battery's anisotropic heat conduction and longer heat paths. Film heating also consumed roughly 1.3% of the module's stored energy at 500 W per square meter, versus less than 0.1% for the other methods. For everyday cooling, the trade-offs reversed. Immersion cooling required more pumping power to maintain the same inlet flow as air cooling or a liquid cooling plate, but its stronger heat removal slowed the capacity fade that accumulates over long cycling — a benefit the authors frame as protecting the asset's lifetime value rather than minimizing upfront cost. The starkest differences emerged in runaway protection. When one cell overheats, a liquid cooling plate or single-phase immersion cooling can delay heat spreading to neighbors, delaying but not preventing a chain reaction. A boiling-based immersion system, which absorbs heat as coolant vaporizes, effectively prohibited runaway propagation from a locally overheated cell in the simulations — phase change, the authors note, offers far higher heat-removal capacity than single-phase convection. The study is numerical: performance in a real container will depend on coolant choice, pack geometry, cost and safety certification, and the boiling system's behavior during uncontrolled lateral flow of hot fluid remains a stated caveat. Still, the authors argue no single technology wins everywhere — air cooling is cheap but struggles at high rates, immersion leads on control, boiling leads on protection. Matching strategy to scenario, they conclude, is the practical path to storage stations that survive both the cold snap and the hot spell.
The Innovation Energy
10.59717/j.xinn-energy.2026.100133
Experimental study
Not applicable
Comparative study of thermal management system for wide temperature safety of large-capacity energy storage batteries
9-Jan-2026
The authors declare no competing interests.