Researchers at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) have investigated what it is like to play a physical game with or against a robot that both looks and behaves like a person.
They conducted a controlled laboratory experiment with Pepper, a social robot designed to interact with humans.
“Our observations show that robots can actually be good playmates, but only if they behave in ways that make sense to people,” said Yavuz Inal, associate professor at NTNU’s Department of Design in Gjøvik.
So, humanoid robots can make good playmates, but their design must take into account gameplay modes, pace, role and order of play. If the robot suddenly acts like an overzealous seven-year-old who simply has to win, while also moving a bit stiffly and not quite understanding the rhythm of the game, we quickly get annoyed. We expect robots that are more natural, responsive and flexible than the current technology is capable of delivering.
Humanoid robots such as Pepper are designed to resemble humans, in both their appearance and behaviour. They have heads, eyes, hands and facial expressions that make it easier for us to relate to them, but which can lead us to automatically expect them to behave somewhat like humans as well.
Previous research has shown that these types of characteristics increase engagement, whether the context is health, education, or pure entertainment.
In the study, the participants played a physical version of trash can basketball with Pepper. The human participants and Pepper the robot threw scrunched up balls of paper at a trash can from carefully chosen positions that made the game suitably challenging.
The researchers tested two gameplay modes: either humans and the robot were on the same team, or they played against each other. In addition, the order of play varied; sometimes the human participants started first, sometimes they let the robot start.
This enabled the researchers to investigate how gameplay mode and order of play affected engagement, motivation, emotional responses and enjoyment of physical activity.
“The study shows that even small adjustments in pace and order of play can be crucial in determining whether playing against a robot is perceived as fun or frustrating,” explained Inal.
The participants in the study enjoyed the game most when it was started in cooperative mode. However, there were also situations where the participants enjoyed playing against the robot. Many of the participants found competitive gameplay more exciting and motivating, especially when they were able to start the game themselves and thus felt more in control.
Beating Pepper produced a distinct sense of mastery, and some individuals admitted that it was especially satisfying when the robot missed the trash can. For these participants, competitive mode provided a clear goal and a sense of being challenged in a fun way.
It quickly became clear that the participants tended to get annoyed with the robot for many of the same reasons that we get annoyed with family members who are a little too competitive when playing Ludo or Monopoly.
Frustration increased especially when Pepper started the game in competition mode. The robot’s stiff movements, long pauses before each throw and slightly overzealous attempts to ‘win’ led people to expect more and become frustrated when Pepper failed to come across as either dynamic or particularly human-like. Some participants described the experience as like playing against an “overworked printer with arms”.
“When robots are invited to take on the role of playmates, we expect them to behave like proper players. If they don’t, we quickly become impatient,” asserted Inal.
The results offer a glimpse into a future where robots not only assist us at work and in the healthcare system, but also participate in everyday activities such as play, exercise and games.
Reference:
Yavuz Inal, Deepti Mishra, Suraj De: ‘The effect of cooperative and competitive human-robot interaction on player experience’ https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1875952126000273
Entertainment Computing
Experimental study
Not applicable
The effect of cooperative and competitive human-robot interaction on player experience
24-Feb-2026