A new study uncovers revealing insights into how plastic materials used in electronics are formed—and how hidden flaws in their structure could be limiting their performance.
Conjugated polymers are a type of plastics that conduct electricity - used in optoelectronics, computing, biosensors, and power generation. The materials are lightweight, low-cost, and can be printed in thin layers onto flexible substrates - making them ideal for next-generation technologies.
An international team of scientists investigated a popular method for making the polymers called aldol condensation, which is praised for being versatile, metal-free, environmentally friendly, and scalable.
Supported by funding from the Leverhulme Trust, the Royal Society, and the European Research Council, the scientists have published their results in Nature Communications - revealing that this method of synthesis introduces structural defects that could affect how well the polymer conducts electricity or converts heat into electrical energy in thermoelectric devices.
Lead author Professor Giovanni Costantini, from the University of Birmingham, commented: “The aldol condensation process can create defects in the polymer sequences, like missteps in a molecular dance, which can disrupt the flow of electrons through the material, reducing efficiency and reliability in devices. Our findings could have wide-reaching implications for the development of high-performance, flexible, low-cost electronics and help reduce reliance on rare or toxic metals in manufacturing.”
These defects, along with the secondary reaction pathways that produce them, have not been previously considered primarily because conventional analytical techniques are unable to detect them.
The researchers used a powerful imaging technique called scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM), combined with electrospray deposition (ESD) - allowing them to examine polymers at the molecular level - zooming in to see how the building blocks were connected, one molecule at a time.
They studied four different polymers made using aldol condensation - discovering two main types of defects:
However, by adjusting the chemical design and purifying the building blocks before polymerisation, the researchers were able to significantly reduce the number of defects.
One approach involved using aldol condensation to create small, well-defined molecules, which were then linked using a different method - producing much cleaner polymer chains.
“This is a major step forward in understanding how to make better-performing, more sustainable materials for electronics,” added Professor Costantini. “It shows that even green chemistry needs careful control to deliver the best results.”
ENDS
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IMAGE CAPTION – please credit Dr Xiaocui Wu
Notes to Editors
Nature Communications
Experimental study
Not applicable
Revealing polymerisation defects and formation mechanisms in aldol condensation for conjugated polymers via high-resolution molecular imaging
31-Jul-2025