Pigeons adjust the division of parental care effort depending on circumstances. A study by researchers at the Technical University of Munich (TUM) shows that when food becomes scarce, male pigeons spend more time incubating eggs, allowing females additional time to forage for themselves. This behavior allows pigeons to maintain a high level of parental care, even during difficult times. The findings raise welfare concerns with feeding bans.
Together, pigeon parents flexibly divide labor to cooperatively keep the nest warm and protected almost continuously. Females perform most of the incubation before the eggs hatch, regardless of whether food is abundant or scarce, and limited only by their energy reserves. In the study, females spent 81 percent of their time on the nest when food was readily available, while males accounted for only 17 percent. Under reduced food availability, females had lower energy reserves and lowered their incubation effort to 75 percent. Males compensated by increasing their share to 22 percent. This kept overall nest attendance virtually unchanged regardless of food availability.
Female pigeons affected most by local food availability
The researchers studied a total of 75 pigeon nests across three cities with feeding bans. Feeding bans are a common tool used by cities and municipalities to reduce pigeon populations, recognizing that urban pigeon populations are largely sustained by human food. One group consisted of urban pigeons living in managed pigeon lofts with a reliable food supply. The other group nested freely on buildings, such as inside church roofs and on ledges, and had to find food on their own elsewhere. To monitor incubation behavior and the physical condition of the parent birds while minimizing disturbance, the research team installed weight sensors beneath the nests, observing weight changes automatically.
The weight data also revealed that females with access to adequate food supply were about 35 grams, or 10 percent, heavier than females in the unfed control group. The researchers interpret this as an indicator of varying energy reserves resulting from differences in food availability. No meaningful weight differences were found among males, as unfed males had more time to find food elsewhere by incubating so little. Food shortages from feeding bans therefore primarily affected female pigeons.
What feeding bans mean for urban pigeons
“Our study highlights how food limitation affects pigeons,” says Brandon Mak, research associate at the Chair of Terrestrial Ecology at TUM and the study's lead author. “Even under averse conditions, pigeons are able to successfully hatch their offspring.” As a result, young pigeons that hatch may later struggle to find enough food for themselves, subsequently succumbing to starvation in great numbers. He adds: “Against this background, measures that act earlier in the reproductive cycle such as regularly replacing eggs with dummy eggs are a more welfare-friendly way of keeping pigeon populations under control.”
Wolfgang Weisser, Professor of Terrestrial Ecology at TUM, adds: “Living with urban animals requires a deeper understanding of their nuanced behavior, regardless of how we feel about them. Pigeon management is controversial because of how it is done. Our interactions with animals, including modifying their environments, should be done reflexively and include more effective species-specific measures.”
Royal Society Open Science
Observational study
When the going gets tough, the dove gets going: feral pigeons maintain nest attendance rates during food shortages with asymmetrical biparental care
30-Sep-2026
The authors declare no competing interest