A Taiwan-led study of Mandarin-speaking learners shows that the sounds we hear and produce are deeply shaped by our prior language experience, offering new insights into how humans learn and use language.
“Every language offers its speakers a particular way of organizing speech sounds,” said Dr. Yu-An Lu, the study’s corresponding author at National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University. “They bring with them the sound categories and listening strategies shaped by their first language. Understanding those influences helps us better understand how new speech categories are learned.”
Why do some English sounds remain difficult for second-language learners, even after years of study? A forthcoming study in Second Language Research suggests that the answer may lie not only in how learners speak but also in how they hear and organize unfamiliar sounds.
More broadly, the findings highlight how language experience shapes human communication. Rather than viewing second-language learning as a process of error correction, the study shows that learners draw on existing linguistic knowledge to make sense of unfamiliar sounds. Understanding these differences can help researchers, educators, and clinicians better appreciate the diversity of human language experience.
The researchers examined how Mandarin-speaking learners of English perceive and imitate two common English vowel contrasts: beat–bit and bat–bet. These sounds can be difficult because English vowels differ in more than one way, including vowel quality, which is largely determined by tongue position, and duration, or how long the vowel lasts. The study found that learners did not rely on the same listening strategy for both contrasts. For beat–bit, Mandarin-speaking learners relied mainly on vowel duration, whereas for bat–bet they relied more on vowel quality. Importantly, these listening patterns were linked to how clearly learners produced the same vowel contrasts when imitating speech.
“This study is ultimately about more than English learning,” said Dr. Lu. “It addresses a fundamental question in language science: how prior language experience shapes the way humans perceive, represent, and produce speech sounds. Our findings show that these influences can be observed in both speech perception and speech production.”
The study addresses a long-standing question in second-language learning: how closely are listening and speaking connected? Previous research has produced mixed answers. The new study offers a more precise view: the connection between hearing and speaking is not general but depends on the sound contrast and the acoustic cue involved. To test this, the researchers created speech stimuli in which vowel quality and duration were manipulated independently. Participants completed a listening task in which they categorized English words and an imitation task in which they repeated the sounds as closely as possible. The results showed a selective perception–production link. Learners who relied more on duration when hearing beat–bit also produced a clearer duration contrast when imitating the vowels. Learners who relied more on vowel quality when hearing bat–bet also produced a clearer quality contrast in speech.
“This gives us a more detailed way to understand second-language pronunciation,” said Dr. Lu. “It is not enough to ask whether learners hear and speak accurately overall. We need to know which sound cue they use and whether that cue helps them distinguish the target sounds.”
The research also shows how a first language can shape second-language learning. Mandarin does not use English tense–lax vowel contrasts in the same way. In the study, learners’ imitation of ambiguous beat–bit vowels was influenced by a Mandarin-like /i/ sound, suggesting that existing first-language sound categories can affect how new sounds are perceived and produced.
Article title: The Perception-Production Link in L2 Vowel Imitation by Mandarin Learners of English
Journal: Second Language Research
Authors: Will Chih-Chao Chang, Chun-Ting Chien, and Yu-An Lu
Institutions: University of California, Irvine; Wan Fang Hospital, Taipei Medical University; National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University
Second language Research
Experimental study
People
The perception–production link in L2 vowel imitation by Mandarin learners of English
19-Jul-2026